What is the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie and the proletariat in the mature concept of K. Marx and F. Engels Life and position of the bourgeoisie and peasants
BOURGEOISE (French bourgeoisie, from the Late Lat. Burgus - a fortified city) is a public class of owners that grew out of the medieval estate of free citizens (the “third estate”). New philosophical encyclopedia
Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie (fr. Bourgeoisie - tradesman, city dweller) - estatedominant class capitalist societyto which the owners belonged private property on the means of productionusing hired work. Source of income bourgeoisie - surplus value. Currently, the term "bourgeoisie" in this sense exists in Russian and French historiography.
Incruable and merweiz. Fig. from the German edition of the XIX century.
Modern the Anglo-American scientific school uses this concept mainly in relation to the period of the Middle Ages; for later, the term "entrepreneurs" is used, understood as one of the components of the so-called "middle class", which also includes highly paid persons of intellectual labor, government officials top rank and others. The bourgeoisie consists of large, medium and small capitalists; decisive role in capitalist society the big bourgeoisie plays (in Russia the so-called " oligarchy"). The bourgeoisie played progressive role in struggle from feudalism, contributed to the rapid growth of productive forces, led the bourgeois the revolution XVII-XIX centuries and established her dominance. The emergence of the bourgeoisie in Russia, supporters of various scientific fields refer to different times. For example, adherents of the theory of the early development of capitalism - by the 17th century, when, in their opinion, the all-Russian marketcities grew and trade population appeared manufactory.
According to their opponents, the social structure of society during this period was of a clearly feudal character, and the manufacture based on forced labor was not evidence of the formation of the classes of the new society. They attribute the appearance of the bourgeoisie to the era of the initial accumulation of capital (XVIII-n.XIX centuries), the formation process - to the stage industrial coup (1830-1890) when machinery turned entrepreneurship to a reliable source of significant profitsand, finally, the finalization of the bourgeoisie as a mature class of capitalist society - by the 20th century, the time of the emergence of bourgeois political parties and the growth of authority of the largest commercial and industrial dynasties. In Russia, formed in the XVIII-n.XIX centuries. of merchants, peasants, bourgeois, nobles. Depending on the level of income, it was divided into small, medium, large. Entrepreneurial activity in the period of feudalism was carried out in Russia by representatives of the merchants.
Englishman in Paris. 1770 g.
Politics Peter I weakened this commercial and industrial layer, only a few known survived childbirth, and few managed to maintain their value until K.X.-N.XX century. During the XVIII century., According to domestic researchers, the stability of merchant families and especially capital was extremely low and was most often limited to one or two generations. This is due to the fact that the largest states did not develop naturally, but thanks state support. Anna Louise Germain de Stael, French emigrant, located in n.XIX century. in Russia, noted: "The estate of the city, or the bourgeoisie, does not yet exist in Russia, but it<буржуазия> begins to develop: the sons of priests, merchants, some peasants who received freedom from their masters to enter the artists, can be considered the beginnings of the third estate in the state. Moreover, the Russian nobility is not similar to the nobility of Germany or France: in Russia you are considered noble when you reach the military rank. No doubt, noble families, such as the Naryshkins, Dolgoruky, Golitsyn, etc., will always occupy first places in the state;
However, it is also true that aristocratic privileges are granted to people who, by the will of the sovereign, suddenly became noble ... "Only those entrepreneurial clans flourished who managed to secure privileges and material support from the government, receive a guaranteed order or profitable loan. If the state further weakened interest to the activities merchants or industrialists, fate theirs became uncertain. The nobles also tried to take advantage of this situation, who, in the hope of state demand, based their estates enterprises on forced labor of peasants. However, they cannot be considered full-fledged entrepreneurs, because they led their usual way of life and didn’t engage in “work”, turning over it to others. of persons and leaving only a profit. In addition to the largest, dependent on guardianship entrepreneurial states also existed smaller, acting at their own peril and risk.
These are representatives of the central and provincial merchants, peasants, philistines, immigrants from other social strata. Gradually, in their hands concentrated a rather large-scale trade in everyday goods and foodstuffs, ownership of mills and sawmills, river ships, and taverns. Some of these merchants and industrialists managed to create significant fortunes that became the basis of the entrepreneurial success of subsequent generations of the domestic bourgeoisie. To n.XX century. the total number of the bourgeoisie was 8-10 million. person. The big bourgeoisie was about 150 thousand people (with family members). The time of the birth of the most famous capitalist dynasties that existed before the October the revolution - Guchkov, Garelin, Konovalov, Morozov, Prokhorov, Ryabushinsky and many others dates back to the 18th-19th centuries, when a new industry for Russia appeared and began to rapidly develop national households - cotton industry.
It dispensed with the direct support of the state, which patronized state-owned and private cloth and iron-making establishments oriented towards meeting the needs the army and fleet. The key to success of the new industry was reliance on a wide consumer a market that needed cheap products. Since the cotton industry was extremely simple on the technical side and was limited at first to manual labor, many peasants took up the artisanal production of chintz. The most successful of them eventually managed to accumulate a sufficient amount of money to open your own factories. It was then that new entrepreneurs began to arise enormous fortunes, which in the conditions of existence in Russia serfdom created a contradictory picture. So, in the 19th century in the village of Ivanovo (today - the city of Ivanovo), many wealthy manufacturers who employed more than a thousand workers were serfs Count Sheremetev.
In fact, they owned movable and immovable propertylegally recorded in the name of the landowner. Naturally, such serf entrepreneurs were trying to get free, but Sheremetev was reluctant to do so - until reform 1861 free about 50 peasant families became, and the average redemption fee for a family was a significant amount for that time - 20 thousand rub. And throughout Russia in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. redeemed approx. 29 thousand fortresses, of which 88 were appreciated amount over a thousand rubles. Yesterday's serfs were usually recorded in guildsreplenishing the ranks of the merchants. Those who did not manage to redeem free will had to pay special fees and enter the so-called category. capitalist peasants. The reform of 1861 served as the strongest impetus for the development of the domestic bourgeoisie, the elimination of feudal remnants contributed to an increase in the number of entrepreneurs, including a significant influx of yesterday’s masses of peasants into the ranks of the merchants (according to censuses, the number of merchants in Moscow increased from 13,943 to 1852 up to 29 222 in 1871 ).
No less important was others: having suffered a painful defeat in Crimean Warthat opened economic insolvency regime of Nicholas I, autocracy embarked on the path of accelerated capitalist development. For this, high customs tariffs in order to protect "their" producers and methods of direct stimulation of the economy. The government had the greatest support railway transport, metallurgy, transport engineering, credit system. The state participated in the organization and the management of enterprises, supplied them with capital, explicitly or implicitly subsidizing production. The result of creating such favorable conditions was availed by energetic entrepreneurs who were able to make huge fortunes. So, thanks to government contracts for the construction of millions, von Meck K.F., Derviza von, Dalvig A.I., Gubonin P.I., Polyakov S.S. and etc.
In the new economic conditions, the most diverse social strata, whose representatives were in a hurry to take advantage of the favorable situation, became sources of replenishment of the Russian bourgeoisie. Wealthy entrepreneurs became engineers Ratkov-Rozhnov A. and A.N., Yablochkov P.N.., Sikorsky I.I.. A significant part of the nobility and high officials also took up industrial and financial affairs. So, one of the leaders of the International commercial bank became a son the minister finance at Alexandre III, Chamberlain of the yard His Imperial Majesties Vyshnegradsky A. And. Dr. Leading the bank Russia - Russian-Asian - was led by former comrade of the Minister of Finance Putilov A. I. At the capitalist stage industrialization, especially in the XX century, the convergence of banking and industrial spheres, trade and production activities, introducing bureaucratic entrepreneurship apparatus led to the formation of powerful financial and industrial groups, largely holding control of the economic life of Russia.
In K.XIX-n.XX centuries. as a result of the development of the credit and financial system, accumulating colossal funds and putting them into circulation, appeared in the ranks of the bourgeoisie rentier. These are holders shares and valuable papersliving on received from them interest profits, owners of apartment buildings, urban real estate, etc. A certain idea of \u200b\u200bthe size of the bourgeoisie and its structure is given by the then official statistics. According to her, in 1905 Considerable income at that time — more than 1 thousand rubles a year — was received by more than 405 thousand people (without family members). The big bourgeoisie can be attributed to individuals with an annual income of more than 10 thousand rubles, there were more than 26 thousand people (170 million people), with 26.4% of them receiving their income from land; 20.3% - from urban real estate; 32.2% - from occupations by business enterprises; 15.4% - of cash capital; 5.7% - from personal labor (highly paid employees, stockbrokers, to a lesser extent - persons of free professions).
However, in Russia until 1917 it did not take shape. mass "middle class" is the bulwark of social stability in society. The Russian bourgeoisie was multinationalamong the elite the largest entrepreneurs besides Russians were Ukrainians (Kharitonenko, Tereshchenko), Jews (Brodsky, Gunzburg, Polyakov), Armenians (Gukasov, Lianozov, Tarasov), Azerbaijanis (Tagiyev, Nagiyev), immigrants from foreign countries ( Nobels, Brokars, Knop) and others. However, this did not impede the consolidation of the bourgeoisie, whose representatives in the 19th-20th centuries. began to actively create their own sectoral and territorial "representative" organizations - the societies of mining companies in the South, the Urals, factory owners and manufacturers of the Moscow region, the Ironmakers Office, and hold regular commercial and industrial congresses. During the revolution of 1905-1907, the first bourgeois political parties were organized, many large capitalists became well-known public figures right sense ( Guchkov A.I., Konovalov A.I., Ryabushinsky P.P..), who played a prominent role in the course of the revolution and civil war.
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Abstract of the Russian path to transition to socialism
<...> At the same time, he assumed such a rapid development of the farming bourgeoisie that it could<...> <...> <...>the bourgeoisie with its reactionary, sometimes even Black-Hundred, convictions.
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No. 3 [Higher education in Russia, 2004]
The journal publishes research results on the current state of higher education in Russia, discusses the theory and practice of humanitarian, science, and engineering higher education. The journal is included in the list of peer-reviewed publications recommended by the Higher Attestation Commission for publishing the results of scientific research in the following areas: philosophy, sociology and cultural studies; pedagogy and psychology; history.
the proletariat, and because of this fear failed to create a rural bourgeoisie. "<...>The rural bourgeoisie successfully competed with the landowners, whose share in the production of bread<...> Slowly but surely there was a redistribution of land in favor of the emerging rural bourgeoisie.<...>The rural bourgeoisie was practically formed, but did not become the support of the throne.<...> For autocracy, reorientation to other social forces, in particular to the urban and rural bourgeoisie
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SOCIALIST TRANSFORMATION AND STRUCTURAL SHifts IN AGRICULTURE OF BULGARIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M .: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNION OF THE SSR INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS OF THE WORLD SOCIALIST SYSTEM
The objectives of the work. In the presented Thesis, the general patterns and features of establishing socialist production relations in Bulgarian agriculture are studied, the most important aspects of the theory and practice of the formation and development of socialist agriculture, the economy and the organization of agricultural production in a new type of socialist economy are summarized - the TKZH, theoretical issues related to ways of socialist transformation of agriculture.
STOUPOV SOCIALIST TRANSFORMATION AND STRUCTURAL SHifts IN AGRICULTURE OF BULGARIA (Abstract<...> The last remnants of the exploiting classes of the city will be economically eliminated - the urban bourgeoisie<...>The rural bourgeoisie (kulaks) will be increasingly limited and squeezed out of their economic positions.<...> The intensification of agriculture is the main line in the development of modern agriculture in the "majority"<...> The development of socialist agriculture in Bulgaria. Moscow, Gosplanizdat, 1960
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Commercial and industrial advertising in post-reform Russia study guide
Chelyabinsk
bourgeoisie (kulaks) - organized a commodity economy; and middle peasants (had 2-3 horses) - part of the production<...> After the abolition of serfdom, agriculture began to develop.<...> “The development of agriculture in Siberia was associated with an increase in the use of agricultural machines.<...> All agriculture developed extensively (sown area increased by 30%).<...> Agrarian reforms and the development of the rural economy of Russia [Electronic resource] / R. Kh.
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The economic history of Russia (from February 1861 to October 1917) textbook. allowance
VolSU Publishing House
The manual traces the development of the main sectors of the national economy of Russia from the time of the abolition of serfdom until October 1917. Shown are changes in the agricultural sector, industry, in finance and credit, money circulation and trade. At the end of each topic, questions are given for self-control and lists of basic concepts are given.
Agriculture increasingly acquired marketability.<...> Two social strata were clearly identified in the village — the rural bourgeoisie and the rural proletariat.<...> emergency management of the economy and its regulation was first admitted commercial and industrial bourgeoisie<...> initiative of the famous businessman and politician A.I. Guchkov with the participation of a number of prominent representatives of the bourgeoisie<...> national economic management bodies during the First World War were created by the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie
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History of State and Law of Russia Workshop
M .: FLINT
The workshop meets the requirements of the compulsory educational standard of Russia for the subject “History of the State and Law of Russia”. Contains the topics of seminars, sample topics of written works and essays, practical homework, tests, basic and additional literature, and control questions for this course.
<...> Khrushchev on measures to further develop agriculture.<...> The formation of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. 26.<...> Local estate representative bodies from the middle of the 16th century a) rural huts; b) village councils; c) Zemsky<...> The formation of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. 26.
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Agrarian Programs of Russian Political Parties at the Beginning of the 20th Century [Monograph]
Sib. Feder. un
The agrarian question is one of the most unsolved and unsolved in the history of Russia. The monograph examines the process of the emergence and development of agrarian programs of political parties in our country at the beginning of the 20th century, explores the views of various political figures on the land and peasant question, as well as their attitude to agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin.
bourgeoisie combined with moderate constitutionalism.<...> Copyright OJSC “Central Design Bureau“ BIBCOM ”& LLC“ Agency Book-Service ”129 Chapter 3 of the rural bourgeoisie, allowing<...> The first new type is the rural bourgeoisie or the prosperous peasantry ...<...> the proletariat against the rural bourgeoisie 2.<...>bourgeoisie and farmers).
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History of State and Law of Russia textbook. allowance (workshop)
publishing house of SKFU
The manual is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Education. Designed for students studying in the specialty 40.05.01 Legal support of national security, in the specialties "State Law", "Criminal Law".
the bourgeoisie began to give 50% of market bread. 3) 3 million householders moved from European Russia to the Urals<...> The White Army was more numerous, but too heterogeneous (bourgeoisie, landowners, intelligentsia, officers)<...> Collectivization of agriculture.<...> Reorganization of industry and agriculture management.<...> Ataman - in Ancient Russia and Ukraine, the elected leader of some rural communities.
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Local history: physical and geographical location, population, economy, culture, history of Tatarstan: textbook. allowance
Cognition
The study guide on local history is devoted to the study of history, gives students an idea of \u200b\u200bthe territory, nature, climate, population, economy, history and culture of the Republic of Tatarstan. The manual contains chapters of topics, questions for self-control after each topic, a glossary, test tasks for the final control of the assimilation of the material, a list of references and an appendix.
The Tatar bourgeoisie, which began with the opening of small workshops, was gradually emerging and gaining strength.<...> Tatar merchants, in Chistopol - 266, in Orenburg and Troitsk - more than 300, etc. 2 The emerging Tatar bourgeoisie<...> In the second half of the XIX century. and the beginning of the XX century., the young Tatar bourgeoisie seeks to seize the dominant<...> industry is developing more actively, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie are multinational in composition<...>the bourgeoisie, represented by the kulaks, on the other, the poorest peasantry.
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AGRICULTURE AND PEASANTIES OF WESTERN SIBERIA AT THE END OF THE XIX-THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY. ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF HISTORICAL SCIENCES
TOMSK STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.V. KUIBYSHEVA
In this paper, an attempt is made to study agriculture and the situation of the peasantry of Western Siberia in terms of the level of development of capitalist relations in the countryside.
bourgeoisie, the growth of entrepreneurial rents and other manifestations of capitalist agrarian evolution<...> the stump of the rural, the bourgeoisie, and the expansion of its sowing ... Copyright OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBCOM "& LLC" Agency<...> Domestic fishing played a large role in the formation of the "rural bourgeoisie."<...> Elements of developed capitalism manifested themselves in the growing, entrepreneurship of the rural bourgeoisie (production<...> The formation of the rural bourgeoisie in the early XX century. it was faster than in the center of European Russia
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No. 68 [Facets, 1968]
MAGAZINE OF LITERATURE, ARTS, SCIENCE AND PUBLIC THOUGHT. Among the authors of The Faces in different years there were such writers and poets as A. Akhmatova, L. Borodin, I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, Yu. Dombrovsky, B. Zaitsev, N. Lossky, A. Kuprin, V. Soloukhin , M. Tsvetaeva, O.P. Ilyinsky.
Why did the bourgeoisie fail to grow stronger and prevent “nationwide bankruptcy”?<...> the farmer way of developing capitalism, on which the working class brings to power a new, progressive rural<...> the Cossacks in their prosperous, leading part, as well as the "kulaks", the old usurious rural trade<...>the bourgeoisie with its reactionary, sometimes even Black-Hundred, convictions.<...> It was not necessary, for example, to talk about the criminal world already in chapter 4 (between the KGB and education), but the rural
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No. 3 [Oikumena. Regional Studies, 2009]
Scientific-theoretical journal OYKUMENA \u200b\u200bregional studies. The subject of the journal is associated with a general assessment of the current state of socio-humanitarian research in the Far East
authorities declared inviolable and taken under the protection of the law property and enterprises of the national bourgeoisie<...> law, reform met the requirements of the majority of the population of the village, took into account the interests of the national bourgeoisie<...> Large landowners, landowners, the rural bourgeoisie began to realize that the situation was changing rapidly and<...> 1984, which Deng Xiaoping defined as "the spread of all sorts of rotten, decadent views of the bourgeoisie<...> domination can be described as a period of integration of the Philippine peoples and the strengthening of the national bourgeoisie
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MOBILE CAPITAL IN AGRICULTURE OF PRE-REVOLUTIONARY TURKESTAN ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
TASHKENT INSTITUTE OF PEOPLE'S ECONOMY
In his work, the dissertation aims: 1. To reveal the specific nature of credit relations in Turkestan, arising from the peculiarities of the socio-economic situation of the region, as a colony of Tsarist Russia. 2. To analyze the forms and methods of usurious exploitation of dekhkanism. 3. To clarify the impact of usurious capital on the position of various social groups of dekhkanism. 4. To show the foundations of the social-class contradictions that took place in Turkestan, and the struggle of labor dekhkanism against the exploiters.
At the same time, in the writings of bourgeois authors, regardless of their desire, we find a great valuable factual<...>of the bourgeoisie. ”1 By 1913, about 90% of irrigated land already belonged to private land ownership.2 Tsarskoye<...>the bourgeoisie.<...> The limited independence of the rural bourgeoisie of Turkestan manifested itself in insufficient strength<...> The economic assistance provided by Russian imperialism to the rural bourgeoisie: the krai, as well as
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No. 1 [Social and human sciences. Domestic and foreign literature. Series 5: History. Abstract Journal, 2011]
The abstract journal provides scientific information on the latest works of domestic and foreign scientists across the entire range of historical research - the methodology of history, the history of Russia, medieval studies, modern and recent history of Western and Eastern Europe, America, international relations, the period of the Ancient World, as well as archeology and ethnology. The focus is on publications reflecting new trends and directions of modern historical research.
Crott highlights two signs of entrepreneurship in agriculture.<...> It was mainly the rural bourgeoisie of the era of primitive accumulation, which made its way up<...> The development of entrepreneurship in agriculture of Western Siberia, according to I.I.<...> Cars were concentrated in large cities and were rare in the countryside.<...> Sjögren, in particular, are rural shrines.
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SOCIALIST TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURE IN THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M .: MOSCOW STATE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The present work, using the example of the German Democratic Republic, highlights the general patterns and characteristics of the socialist reorganization of agriculture.
SHARKOV SOCIALIST RE-ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE IN THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Abstract<...> Under these conditions, the study of the issue of socialist restructuring of agriculture as an integral<...> "Production cooperation of agriculture of the GDR."<...>bourgeoisie measures of labor re-education.<...>the bourgeoisie were significantly undermined.
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The main features of the Institute of World Justice in Russia were outlined back in 1859 by Count D.N. Fornication. “Justices of the peace,” recorded in the Journal of the State Council of 1861, “should be predominantly local judges and peacekeepers; the general trust of local inhabitants constitutes a necessary condition for their appointment ... ”According to the drafters of the Judicial Statutes of 1864, the main advantages of a world court were, firstly, its accessibility to the population, and secondly, the speed and simplicity of world proceedings
For ten years, performing the position of rural magistrate, and then the Zemsky chief, Salov<...> P. 496. The impoverishment of the village, the ruin of the "noble nests", the onset of the newly-born rural bourgeoisie
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Recent history of the countries of Asia and Africa. XX century. At 2 hours, Part 1. 1900–1945 textbook
M .: VLADOS
The textbook is devoted to the history of the countries of Asia and Africa in 1900-1945. The special chapter discusses the main development trends of the peoples of this region. The authors focused on the socio-economic and political history of individual countries. The textbook is part of the educational and methodological complex "New and modern history of foreign countries."
Among them, all the time there was a stratification into the prosperous elite (a kind of embryo of the rural bourgeoisie) and<...>The rural bourgeoisie in the East (with the exception of its foreign and foreign fractions) was formed<...> Usury, sucking the last juices from the peasants and lower strata of the rural bourgeoisie, seriously hindered<...>Over 90% of the population was engaged in agriculture.<...> Large cattle breeders - sheikhs, leaders of nomadic and semi-saddled adjacent to the emerging layer of the rural bourgeoisie
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Agricultural Entrepreneurship: Behavioral Strategies and Practices in the Transformation of Siberian Society (1914–1920)
From the history of the formation of the Siberian bourgeoisie. Tomsk, 1996; He is.<...> The stratification of the peasantry and the formation of the rural bourgeoisie in Siberia were investigated by L. M.<...> proletarians and semi-proletarians, small-scale middle-class producers and the rural bourgeoisie, which included<...> Tyukavkin, who noted, “that in the Siberian village ... the rural bourgeoisie was much more willing and more likely to resort<...>bourgeoisie 96.
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the article is devoted to a noticeable trend of the 1990s: the process of resuming the production of Voronezh periodicals that existed before the 1917 revolution. A comparative analysis of typological concepts of original and revived newspapers and magazines is presented, the contribution of this group of publications to the typological diversity of the regional press is described
Created for the industrial and rural bourgeoisie, the newspaper widely discussed agricultural issues on its pages.<...> the expansion of the rights of zemstvos and urban self-government, for strengthening the economic and political positions of the bourgeoisie
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the article analyzes the views of the ideologists of legal populism of the last third of the nineteenth century. to the problem of "power and reform." The causes of different interpretations by the Narodniks of the social nature of the Russian autocracy and its role in the history of Russia are investigated. The features of the legal-populist program of political democratization of the country are clarified.
theoreticians, their particular tactics of action (using the power of the bureaucracy to counter the strengthening of the bourgeoisie<...> The thesis that the government primarily protects the interests of the landlords and the nascent rural bourgeoisie<...> Neither the nobility, nor the clergy, nor the merchants (subsequently the bourgeoisie), but, according to a number of Narodniks,<...> The third reason was the desire of the Narodniks to prevent the seizure of power by the bourgeoisie.<...> Only the bourgeoisie could impede the development of this process, which would inevitably lead to the seizure of power
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ECONOMIC SITUATION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITY OF THE NOBILITY OF THE VORONEZH PROVINCE IN THE REFORMED EPOCH [Electronic resource] / Chigireva // Bulletin of the Voronezh State University. Series: History. Political science. Sociology .- 2013 .- No. 2 .- S. 206-211 .- Access mode: https: // site / efd / 507836
the article is devoted to the study of the economic situation of the nobility of the Voronezh province after the abolition of serfdom in Russia and the economic activity of the upper class in the post-reform era
doomed, and the future power in the village became landowners from landowners of the entrepreneurial type and rural<...>the bourgeoisie, whom the author himself impartially called "worms on a corpse."<...> In agriculture, the necessary conditions for this have not yet been formed: there was not enough<...> According to the "Regulation on the hiring of rural work" (Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, T.<...> The farmer could cover the cash deficit with new loans, leading him to this situation
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M .: MEDIA
The article presents the results of studies of the process of formation of local government in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. The importance of the Provisions on provincial and district zemstvo institutions of 1864 for the establishment and development of Russia's suffrage is emphasized. The results of studies of scientists of the period under review, analyzing the situation of Zemstvos and the legal regulation of the Zemstvo election process, are presented.
Despite the fact that there is rich historical experience in the field of urban, rural municipality and rural self-government<...> So, in many provinces there was only one doctor for 7-30 thousand people, per student in rural<...> local economy now attracted a wider circle of inhabitants: the nobility, commercial and rural<...>bourgeoisie, prosperous peasantry.<...> so the peasants - former serfs, specific, state - were united in the broader concept of "rural
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The stages of changing the ratio of the main types of social mobility of the Siberian peasantry in the 1920s are revealed. At the beginning of the decade, the basic trend of its vertical mobility was replenishment at the expense of other groups of the rural population and return migrants from cities, the main direction of social changes in the village was impoverishment. In the mid-1920s the scale of rural-urban migration and the movement of peasants to other strata began to increase, horizontal social mobility took on an upward trend. In 1928–1929 the migration of peasants increased sharply, the number of collective farmers, workers of state farms and other state enterprises increased at a rapid pace, the growth of people engaged in handicrafts slowed down, and the proportion of prosperous peasant farms decreased.
Moreover, many of them were recent natives of the countryside.<...> A significantly smaller number of rural migrants became artisans and employees.<...> Workers of state farms constitute the rural detachment of the working class.<...>the bourgeoisie.<...>The rural intelligentsia of Siberia. The end of 1919 - 1927, Novosibirsk, 1988.174 s. 4.
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the article is devoted to the study of the economic activity of the nobility of the Voronezh province after the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the analysis of the economic efficiency of the nobility and the economic problems of the post-reform era
The development of capitalist relations in agriculture in the post-reform period, the transition from subsistence<...> the estate was doomed, and the future power in the village - landowners from landowners of the entrepreneurial type and rural<...>the bourgeoisie, whom the author himself impartially called "worms on a corpse."<...> Report on a business trip in 1893 from the imperial Moscow Society of Agriculture / V.
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The agrarian question in the works of Russian conservatives of the late XIX - early XX centuries.
The article talks about the views of the Russian conservatives of the late XIX - early XX centuries. to solve the agrarian question in the Russian Empire.
According to him, out of 3,710 householders who were part of rural societies that participated in the riots<...> So, right-wing agricultural specialists argued that the problem of Russian agriculture was<...> in extensive farming practices.<...>bourgeoisie in combination with moderate constitutionalism ”20.<...> Not all rightists opposed the country's capitalization and critics of the bourgeoisie.
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The economic discussions in the USSR in 1920–1980, their topics, the main positions of the participants and the results of the discussions are considered. It is shown that in different periods the level of scientific discussions and their influence on the development of science and economic policy was not the same. Particularly heated scientific disputes were at critical periods in the country's economic life, but their impact on the choice of strategy and institutional reforms was minimal. Economic discussions in the USSR always took place in a more or less rigid ideological framework, although the degree of freedom of scientific creativity was different. The level of discussion was affected by the deterioration in the quality of education and the degradation of the human resources of social scientists. At the same time, in certain periods of the country's life, a restoration of the quality of economic research was observed
transition to the socialization of peasant farms, since the latter created the basis for the reproduction of rural<...>bourgeoisie and capitalist relations in general.<...> An analysis of such experiments in the regions, at individual rural and industrial enterprises, as well as
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HISTORY AND MODERNITY OF LAND RELATIONS AND LAND MANAGEMENT IN RUSSIA
Buryat State University
The training manual provides a brief outline of each historical moment of the land reform, conducted a thematic selection of modern land legislation, provides the full texts of the most important documents on land reform or their summary. The manual is intended for students in areas of preparation 03.21.02 Land management and cadastres, 03.21.03 Geodesy and remote sensing. The publication may be useful to students, students of special continuing education courses studying the history of the country and social transformation in the agricultural sector of the economy, modern land legislation of the Russian Federation.
About the device of rural societies and volosts and their public management About education of rural societies<...> OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBCOM "& LLC" Agency Book-Service "74 of the Union of Landowners and Tsarism with the peasant bourgeoisie<...>The rural bourgeoisie, in order to raise the marketability of the economy, took measures to intensify agricultural<...> These agricultural tools aroused admiration of rural peasants, were the wonders of the technique of this<...> act rural communities, land societies, rural gatherings and other traditional forms of peasant
Preview: HISTORY AND MODERNITY OF LAND RELATIONS AND LAND MANAGEMENT IN RUSSIA.pdf (1,5 Mb)28
Through the prism of the concept of the “entrepreneurial minority”, we consider the characteristic features of the adaptation and economic behavior of ethnic migrants in the late XIX - early XX centuries using the example of the German population of Western Siberia. The actual material reveals the main mechanisms and ways of adaptation of ethnic migrants, explores the structure of the market space, its segmentation by ethnicity, the nature of intra-and interethnic interaction and the characteristics of economic specialization in the period under review.
Siberia urgently needed the development of agriculture, crafts and trade, so the Germans settled<...> The first is the production and sale of ethnic consumer goods for the needs of rural communities (the simplest<...> the formation of the rural bourgeoisie.<...> This deterrent fully manifested itself in the situation of rural Germans who prefer to live in Siberia<...> Features of the socio-cultural adaptation of rural and urban Germans who resettled in the Tomsk province
29
The article is devoted to the analysis of mass political consciousness in domestic journalism of the early twentieth century on the basis of publications by P. Milyukov and A. Izgoyev, which examined the role of the traditionalist mentality in the perception by the Russians of the institution of public representation as an imperious “innovation” in the framework of then-carried out political modernization.
the king not so much the needs of the whole peasantry as the interests of a particular community, dominated the consciousness of the rural<...> discussions on social issues relating, first of all, to the socialization of land, representatives of rural<...>the bourgeoisie, wanting to "hush up" an unpleasant topic for themselves, transferred the conversation to the plane of politics.<...> The content of the mission, for example, was disclosed in detail for rural elects in special peasant
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AGRICULTURAL RELATIONS AND AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN SWEDEN ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M .: INSTITUTE OF WORLD ECONOMY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR
The aim of this work is an attempt, based on the study of specific material, to give a Marxist-Leninist analysis of the evolution of agrarian relations and agricultural cooperation in modern Sweden.
entrepreneurs, by landlords and fists, using it as a tool to attract the peasantry to the side of the bourgeoisie<...> The technical base of agriculture has completely changed.<...>the bourgeoisie.<...> Using the material benefits received from cooperation by rural owners, the bourgeoisie turns the cooperative<...> other small entrepreneurs with the working class emphasize the need to counterbalance the influence of the bourgeoisie
Preview: AGRICULTURAL RELATIONS AND AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN SWEDEN.pdf (0,0 Mb)31
The article discusses the population dynamics of the Livensky district of the Oryol province from the second half of the XIX century. until 1928. The impact of the agrarian reform of 1906-1916 is investigated. on the development of rural population, the dynamics of the population and peasant farms. The role of farms in the process of developing the population of rural areas is being studied. The conclusion is made about the effectiveness of the "Stolypin" agrarian reform in relation to population
The role of farms in the process of developing the population of rural areas is being studied.<...> The reform of agriculture continued after the tragic death of P.A.<...>the bourgeoisie, which would take on the role of the main organizer of commodity production in the agricultural sector<...> By 1897, 269.744 rural residents were already living in Lebanon County9.<...> Heavy rains and population density only in the rural territory of the county.
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The “fist” phenomenon in the Soviet press of the period of collectivization (1928-1932): signs, cultivation features and qualitative changes in the hostile image [Electronic resource] / Volkova // Moscow University Herald. Series 10. Journalism .- 2013 .- No. 3 .- S. 72-87 .- Access mode: https: // site / efd / 378873
The methods and forms of filing a hostile image of the “fist", the signs and boundaries of this concept based on the analysis of the rhetoric of party publications of the period of collectivization (the newspaper "Pravda", the magazine "Party Building", "Peasant newspaper") are investigated. It is concluded that in 1928-1932 the content of the phenomenon of "kulaks" in Soviet propaganda changed significantly.
of the fact that officially only the kulaks were classified as "enemies of the people" in the village as belonging to the class of the bourgeoisie<...>the bourgeoisie by the end of the 1920s in the village there was no more legitimate talk about the “layer” of peasant-kulaks<...> the tasks of the party, generally any layers of the peasant population, regardless of their belonging to the class of the bourgeoisie<...> the defining criterion of the kulak-capitalist layer of the village was its membership in the class of the bourgeoisie<...> class dominant was a sign of the capitalist element of the village: the kulaks were classified as a bourgeois class
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RESOLUTION OF AGRARIAN QUESTION IN THE CENTRAL ASIAN REPUBLIC OF THE USSR AND ASPECTS OF USING THEIR EXPERIENCE IN SUDAN ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND THE ORDER OF LABOR OF THE RED BANNER AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K.A. TIMIRYAZEV
The purpose and objectives of the study. The purpose of the thesis is to study the theory and practice of agrarian transformation that took place in the USSR as a whole, the features of their implementation in individual Union republics ....
Lenin, with public ownership of the affinity of production, with the class victory of the proletariat over the bourgeoisie<...> One of the reasons for the backwardness of agriculture: there was exorbitant ^ absolute absolute rent.<...> production relations and the organization of exploitation of peasants and tenants by various groups of feudal lords in the bourgeoisie<...> workers by feudal lords, Rostov-ssa-mi, banks, owners of water-lifting devices, various layers of the bourgeoisie<...>bourgeoisie in the sale of agricultural magic and equipment, the right to hire labor power, and rent land
Preview: RESOLUTION OF THE AGRARIAN QUESTION IN THE MIDDLE ASIAN REPUBLIC OF THE USSR AND ASPECTS OF USING THEIR EXPERIENCE IN SUDAN.pdf (0,0 Mb)34
The economy of Russia at the turn of the century monograph
The monograph examines the philosophical understanding of the economy in its historical development - from ancient to the philosophy of the twentieth century and views on the origin and essence of the economic sphere of society. The work traces the history of origin and economic development from the primitive communal system to the present. A significant place in the analysis of economic development is devoted to the different stages of the economic life of Russia, the assessment of the economic activity of Russia by its economic thinkers, the reasons for the decline and recovery in different periods of the economy of Russia, the USSR and Modern Russia are revealed. Economic models in the conditions of market relations are considered. For the convenience of the reader, we were able to set out in a single whole history of the emergence and economic development of Russia and offer new forms of management for the future.
<...> These types are the rural bourgeoisie (mostly small) and the rural proletariat, the class of producers<...> The decomposition of the peasantry created a rural bourgeoisie at one pole of the village, and a rural bourgeoisie at the other pole<...>bourgeoisie, on the other - the rural proletariat.<...>bourgeoisie, on the other - the rural proletariat.
Preview: Russian economy at the turn of the century.pdf (0.8 Mb)35
SPECIALIZATION AND CONCENTRATION OF PRODUCTION IN THE LATVIAN SSR State Farms ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M.: MOSCOW ORDER LENIN AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K.A. TIMIRYAZEV
SPECIALIZATION AND CONCENTRATION OF PRODUCTION IN THE LATVIAN SSR State Farms
. * called to play agriculture. Therefore c.<...> Among the ways and measures of raising agriculture, the Program * outlines, "implement scientifically-based<...> the distribution of agriculture in natural, economic "zones and regions, more in-depth and stable<...>bourgeoisie and rallied the peasantry around the Communist Party, Soviet power and the working class.<...> / s and natural meadows: and pastures r ^ Vs of the total area of \u200b\u200bagricultural land of state farms.
Preview: SPECIALIZATION AND CONCENTRATION OF PRODUCTION IN THE LATVIAN SSR State Farms.pdf (0,0 Mb)36
AGRICULTURE OF NIGERIA. RESULTS AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT. ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES
M .: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the USSR
The purpose and objectives of the study. This dissertation is devoted to the study of a number of problems facing Nigeria that need to be resolved as soon as possible during the construction of an independent economy, the most urgent of which is the problem of raising and further developing agriculture. V. connection with this, the main objectives of this work are: 1) analysis of conditions, trends and development results. agriculture of Nigeria in 1960-1977., the determination of the reasons inhibiting the development, productive forces in this industry; 2) study of the problem of further development of production and export from Africa of cocoa beans, peanuts, rubber of palm products, i.e. those types of food industrial raw materials for which the country occupies one of the leading places in the world capitalist economy and which are also necessary for the national economy of the USSR; 3) analysis of the state and prospects of Soviet-Nigerian cooperation in the field of agriculture.
"Agriculture of Nigeria.<...> Lgrotechshpsa in the country's agriculture continues to remain primitive.<...> the well-educated peasants "; as the state co-owners of the rural ....;, j". ".!!. 1 .: bourgeoisie?<...> ./.".stages of its formation. as a class of rural? bourgeoisie.<...> capitalism is not co-created by the "process of stratification" of the rural population into the bourgeoisie and "L :; the proletariat
Preview: AGRICULTURE OF NIGERIA. RESULTS AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT..pdf (0,0 Mb)37
Agro-industrial complex management system: theory, methodology, practice monograph
M .: ITC "Dashkov and K"
The monograph summarizes the theoretical and practical aspects of the management of the agro-industrial complex, shows the influence of management on the development of productive forces and production relations. The basic provisions of domestic and foreign scientific schools of management and their use in practice are considered. The causes of the crisis in the agricultural sector of the economy caused by changes in state policy, a violation of the principles of managerial decisions are revealed. An assessment of the practice of using intellectual potential is given. A new pragmatic scientific paradigm of managing the agro-industrial complex is proposed, due to the development of scientific and technological progress, the increasing role of the state in the regulation of economic relations. The models in the field of the formation of new organizational and production structures and the functions of state and economic management are substantiated.
All-Union Research Institute of Agricultural Economics.<...> societies or communities conduct rural gatherings; groups of rural societies constitute a volost, the borders of which<...> These types are the rural bourgeoisie and the rural proletariat, the class of commodity producers in agriculture and the class<...> cooperatives with public ownership of the means of production, with the class victory of the proletariat over the bourgeoisie<...> In 2016, with a specific weight of the rural population of 25.8%, 36.3% of the unemployed are in rural areas
Preview: Agro-industrial complex management system theory, methodology, practice Monograph.pdf (0.5 Mb)38
Revolutionology. Problems of the premises of the revolutionary process of 1917 in Russia (based on materials from domestic and foreign historiography): a training manual
Omsk State University
Trotignon agreed that capitalism, and the bourgeoisie, and the proletariat, and modern agriculture<...>bourgeoisie, the village elite.<...> In Soviet historiography, in any case, it was customary to identify the rural-village bourgeoisie<...> Anfimova, the bulk of the rural bourgeoisie are usurious, commercial, industrial strata<...>Agriculture).bourgeoisie because the whole way of life in
Land balance data of the Ministry of Agriculture of the RSFSR. 3.<...> The concentration of large areas of peasant forests in the post-reform period in the hands of the rural bourgeoisie<...> Our science and practice of advanced collective farms have convincingly proven the role of protective plantings in enhancing rural<...> According to materials collected by the USSR Ministry of Agriculture, in arid 1954 on an area of \u200b\u200bmore than<...> With the same forest cover equal to 45-50%, "in the Kirov region per 100 hectares of agricultural
Preview: VILLAGE FORESTS AND FEATURES OF THE ECONOMY IN THEM.pdf (0,0 Mb)43
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE GEORGIAN SSR INSTITUTE OF HISTORY, ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOGRAPHY NAMED AFTER I. A. JAVAKHISHVILI
The objectives of the work. The relevance of the topic under study is determined by the fact that its development reveals the historically regular process of the destruction of backward, feudal-patriarchal relations and the emergence of new, capitalist relations that took place in Azerbaijan during the post-reform period.
UMAYEV CAPTURE OF CAPITAL IN AGRICULTURE OF AZERBAIJAN (VINEYARDS AND COTTON FARMING) 1883-<...> From Maylov, who created the work “Agriculture of Azerbaijan in the beginning of the XX century.” and “Capitalism in rural<...> I, p. 460. 13 Copyright OJSC "Central Design Bureau" BIBCOM "& LLC" Agency Book-Service "of the bourgeoisie.<...> Zyulgadarov, involved rural Hitler and Napoleonic era The brochure provides a comparative analysis of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Great Patriotic War.
Depriving the bourgeoisie of the right to directly intervene in government and law, Napoleon<...> satisfied in the reign of Napoleon not only large, but also enormous in number, small and rural<...>to the bourgeoisie, Napoleon’s foreign policy had in mind to a large extent the interests of the big bourgeoisie<...> Progressive from the point of view of the then bourgeoisie Napoleon’s legislation was supplemented unusually<...> Even the editor of the most widespread organ of the liberal bourgeoisie, Theodor, who voted for Hindenburg
Preview: Hitler’s and Napoleonic era.pdf (1.6 Mb) in the economy is much further than in real estate, in transport,The collection is based on revised and supplemented reports and messages from the participants of the scientific conference "Entrepreneurship of the Volga Region: Sources, Traditions, Problems and Development Trends" held in Cheboksary on June 23-24, 1997. The articles included in it were written mainly by historians and economists.
The Russian bourgeoisie was multinational in composition.<...> In relation to the inhabitants of the village, it must be assumed to be equivalent to the concepts of "large peasants", "rural bourgeoisie<...> What among them is the proportion of the big bourgeoisie itself?<...> The big bourgeoisie of Russia. The end of the XIX century. - 1914, M „1992.<...> in agriculture.
Preview: Entrepreneurship of the Volga region sources, traditions, problems and development trends (1) .pdf (0,8 Mb)50
No. 1 [Historical Sciences, 2012]
Historical sciences. Since 2013, the magazine has not been published.
Agricultural School of the Moscow Society of Agriculture, founded in 1820).<...> feudal lords in the countryside and in the city; 2) the peasantry began to separate, from its ranks began to stand out<...> the possible limits of corvée exploitation, coupled with an increase in the farming culture, increased the productivity of rural<...> The existence of the community also restrained the process of stratification of the peasantry and the separation of the rural<...> The prosperous part of the peasantry (rural bourgeoisie), as well as rural
Preview: Historical Sciences №1 2012.pdf (0.3 Mb)Bourgeoisie - a special class of capitalist society, whose members own some property (for example, land, capital, patents) and receive income from the use of this property. In Russian, the term came from the French “bourgeoisie”.
Types of the bourgeoisie
In relation to the sphere of application of capital, the bourgeoisie can be divided into:
- The rural bourgeoisie;
- Industrial;
- Trading;
- Banking.
Another criterion for the classification of the bourgeois stratum may be the scale of profit derived from the use of capital in any industry. Allocate:
- Large;
- Average;
- The petty bourgeoisie.
By the term “petty bourgeoisie” most often I mean urban or village artisans, peasants, small proprietors who live off the money received from production.
The bourgeoisie in Russia
The formation of the class of the bourgeoisie in Russia took place with its own characteristic features. It is worth noting that the emergence of the bourgeoisie is most often associated with the industrial development of the country, that is, the beginning of manufactory or any other large-scale production. So, in Russia, starting from the 17th century, a layer of the bourgeoisie began to appear, but its development and existence depended directly on state support.
Unlike other countries, in Russia the bourgeois class was politically inactive. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, when the number of the bourgeoisie sharply increased, its representatives practically did not participate in the political life of the country, preferring cooperation with the bureaucracy and the conservative state apparatus.
During the USSR, when the bourgeois class was persecuted by the state, and private economic activity completely disappeared from the life of society, the terms “bourgeois” or “bourgeoisie” acquired a negative connotation. So they called something alien, foreign, coming from the capitalist countries of the West, that is, something harmful to the political system of the Soviet state.
At the end of the XVII century, the economically advanced countries of Europe, and ahead of others, England and France experienced a deep overwork from the whole system of mercantilism. And the nature of his shy custody, and the unjust preference for urban and commercial interests, and the erroneous exaltation of exclusively metallic currency as money, and the complete absence of any freedom of economic action, all this created a deep protest against the old economic system. Symptoms of the reaction became more definite, sharper and more alarming. Already in England, the merchant and Lord Deadley Norts formulated at the end of the 17th century the first principles of the idea of \u200b\u200bfree trade. Already in 1680, the provincial merchant Legendre declared to Colbert “leave us alone”, and the prominent writers and patriots of France Pierre Boisguillebert (1646-1714) and the famous French Marshal Vauban (1633-1707) ardently proved the need for increased attention to the completely forgotten , but an important branch of the national economy, to agriculture. The whole system of France of the pre-revolutionary period eloquently proved the extreme danger of oblivion of the countryside and agriculture. The situation of the peasants has reached extreme poverty and strife. The rural population was an extremely impoverished tax and completely exhausted by all kinds of extortion impoverished population. The peasantry and tenants have lost their human image. These were the shadows that fed on the roots, the poor, stripped, weakened. Meanwhile, with its beauty and natural wealth, the evergreen pastures of humid England, and the fertile fields and plains of France proved the possibility of excellent agriculture and profitable gardening. This unattainable and unattainable opportunity in those days was spoken deeply and thoroughly, with poetic pathos and strong upsurge, both writers and philosophers. In the middle of this exceptional century there came a powerful and shocking foundation of civilization, the voice of the incomparable Jean Jacques Rousseau. From dusty crowded and stuffy cities, from a false civilization and conditional culture, Rousseau imperiously called mankind to forgotten nature, to fields and groves, to a simple and simple life, to natural activities. Russo's appeal, both in its form and in its exceptional manner, corresponded to the whole meaning of this great rebellion of human nature against its distortion and conventions. Despite all its abstractness, Rousseau's simple and uncomplicated language was understood by every educated European. The simple views of the Swiss philosopher, their simplicity and sincerity made a tremendous and indelible impression on the modern reader. Every feeling and thinking European has become a fan of Rousseau these days.
Rousseau was neither an economist nor a socialist, but his ideas had a profound effect on the economic views of his century and on the course of development of socialism. So Rousseau radically changed the train of thought of European society. Before Rousseau and after Rousseau - these are two different concepts of thought. Rousseau completed and formulated a number of ideas that had only been brewing before him, and laid the foundation for a series of thoughts of a new order. In Rousseau, as if in focus, concentrated new concepts of the century, which in general was all carried away by the doctrine of natural law, of the man of nature, of a simple and close to nature life. Rousseau was only partial, only one of the most striking touches of the new general trend. The once again inflamed attraction to nature became universal in this era. In houses and cities they strove for the greenery of meadows, for fields and groves. Green plants appeared on the windows of city apartments, flowers in the front gardens, green squares and Chinese arbors, ceilings and walls, dishes and furniture painted with flowers and landscapes among dusty streets and gray squares. Artists of the era chose rural landscapes and scenes for their paintings: rural scenes, pastoral idyllic genres, rural herds and figures. Watt was a favorite of Parisians, shepherds and shepherdesses - the main character of short stories, ballet and musical works. They saw a wandering prince in a swineherd, a disguised princess in a flower girl. The usual costume of secular society resembled a rural landscape. The powdered marquise performed with the shepherd's baton, the mock marquise performed with a basket of flowers or harp. Alien to real rural life and its hardships, the frivolous and carefree representatives of the aristocracy played in the village and rural life. They did not suspect the whole tragedy of the social contradiction that arose during their sincere and absurd in essence - masquerade. So the abyss was deep between those who played in the rural world, by virtue of fashion, secular society and the actual situation of the village. “The darkness of bitter truths is dearer to us than exalting deception”, apparently the ancestors of the modern French thought in the 18th century.
The new public mood crystallized quite quickly by the 60s of the great century. It received the name, in the spirit of that era, from the Greek constituent parts - fusis - nature and cratain - to create, -physiocrats.
Having developed in France among high society, mainly large landowners, new ideas captured the circle of the most educated people of the third estate, here doctors and lawyers, scientists and journalists came together, in a word, everyone who sought to consider general economic views on the nature and meaning of the people from new general points of view households.
The head of the new direction was a serious writer, a serious scientist, an outstanding doctor, the king’s life physician - Francois Quesnay. He was a good naturalist and a remarkable economist. His general views, as well as the views of his most important associates, were quite theoretically and philosophically justified. As a doctor, Quesnay approached his modern society, as a human body. He saw in it an analogy with the human body. In this great public body, Quesnay sought the same relationships and processes that he knew from the courses of medicine. Therefore, for Quesnay, it was important to determine the normal physiological and abnormal pathological conditions and the general balance, so to speak, of the economic balance - the income and expenditure in the life of the social organism. He portrayed all this both in his articles and in the famous Economic Table, thereby laying the foundation for a new theoretically substantiated economic worldview.
In its entirety, this direction has been unfolded since the mid-50s and during the 60s of the 18th century, i.e., on the eve of the great French Revolution. Meanwhile, in order to understand the era, it is important to cover the entire preliminary period immediately preceding the change of mercantilism by physiocratism, i.e., a period of gradual increase in disappointment with the old regime and an increase in the general politically revolutionary mood.
Revolutionism in all areas was the general mood of the whole of the 18th century. Fermentation and a desire for radical change developed in all areas. The state bankruptcy of France that deeply drained France from 1721-1722. was the official threshold for the onset of a new era. The displeasure that arose, due to police and censorship conditions, still did not have the strength to actively break out and appear in the printed word. Fermentation, under current conditions, would be energetically and ruthlessly suppressed. Therefore, a variety of manuscript literature appeared and spread widely. Lists of pamphlets, and sometimes entire books, multiplied and changed hands, gathering a mass of readers and listeners. In this way public opinion was excited, protests were expressed, new views were held. In the same way, an unknown provincial priest from Champagne threw his civilized world at the bold, atheistic and revolutionary challenge, which he, Jean Mellier, had been brewing for years and resulted in his manuscript Testament (1729). Here, the first thoughts of an angry revolutionary protest were laid, all that spiritual rebellion against the existing order, which reached the end of the century already in the form of a desperate challenge organized by the leaders of the Babef conspiracy.
But not only the revolutionary moods exhausted all the radical literature of this era. Here, various directions have found their place, expressing the worldview of various groups of the then bourgeoisie. More conservative are economists and writers on general issues - Melon, Dutot, Montesquieu and Forbonne. Of these, Montesquieu (1689-1755), the author of "Persian Letters" and "The Spirit of Laws", is universally recognized, but Montesquieu is not so deep as brilliantly witty. His paradoxes at the first moment dazzle and amaze, but this author’s economic baggage is not enough to distinguish him from the vast galaxy of brilliant writers of the great century, or to connect with his name the beginning of a new school, sect or significant trend.
Representatives of radical economism are more curious, though differing in a rather peaceful nature. In the first place it is necessary to put the drafter of the project of eternal peace and the hater Louis, abbot Saint-Pierre (1652-1743). No less famous is his pupil of the Marquis Rene-Louis d’Arganson and the Anglo-Frenchman Richard Cantillon. To them, with some caveat, one can include the Marquis of Mirabeau (1715-1789), usually called the Elder Mirabeau, unlike his son, the famous orator of the revolution. Each of them is a characteristic figure that deserves some attention. From the point of view of the development of economic ideas, Richard Cantillon deserves special attention with his essay on the “Experience in Commerce in General” (Essai sur le commerce en general) and which represents a transitional stage to physiocracy. Somewhat apart in this group is a small handful of writers who at one time mistook the physiocrats, grouped around Jean-Claude Marie Vincent de Gourne. This group received the name of the liberal administrative school of Gourne. Gourne was a convinced Englishman and a progressive administrator, who liked to refer to the experience and example of the English order. Gourne was a prolific writer and energetic translator of a number of scientists, previously unknown to England.
